G. Motivation
 
 

A starting point to discussing motivation is the old "carrot and stick" 
analogy (the carrot representing a positive incentive, the stick representing
a negative one).   Simple as it sounds, it remains as one of the most powerful 
ideas in understanding motivation.  The models below build on this idea.

 
1. Maslow:      
 

Maslow created a "hierarchy of needs" as discussed in the text.                                                                                            
Very little research provides support for motivation moving up this hierarchy. 
For example, people will sacrifice personal comfort in the pursuit of their 
higher goals, which contradicts the hierarchy.  Nevertheless, the hierarchy is 
useful in understanding motivation, and it can be measurable.         

                                                                  
2. Herzberg:     
 

Herzberg designed a system based on "hygiene" and "motivators", 
which on closer examination sound an awful lot like carrots and sticks.               
Ultimately, Hervzerg's model is similar to Maslow.                                

 
3. Vroom:   
 

Vroom's expectancy theory can be stated as:   
 

force = valence * expectancy         

where:      force = motivation                 

                        valence = preference for an outcome  
                                                               
                        expectancy = subjective probability     
                

The most important part of Vroom's theory is the concept of 
subjective probability.  For example, if I am not motivated to 
buy a lottery ticket, it is because I do not believe I will win 
the lottery.   Similarly in organizations, employees may not believe
they will be rewarded for their efforts.  It is this belief, not the 
reward itself, that most affects motivation. 

 
4. Skinner:     
 

B.F. Skinner's theory of motivation is based on positive reinforcement 
(or behavior modification).  Skinner's principles include: 

• identify work needs
• bsed on these needs, create a proper work environment
• this environment should include prompt rewards for performance

(Skinner found that punishment produced poor results)

  
5. McClelland:  
 

McClelland identified 3 fundamental needs: 

• power
• affiliation
• achievement

He also found that:

• everyone has at least some need in these three areas
• each individual can be profiled with, for example, very little need in one category and a strong need in another
• managers generally have less need for affiliation.
• organizations need individuals with different profiles

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For more information,  try:   management

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