MODULES
Chapter A01: Basic Concepts
Chapter A02: Population and Energy
Chapter A03: Communicable Disease Concepts
Chapter A04: Communicable Diseases
Chapter A05: Food Safety
Chapter A06: Food Safety Controls
Chapter A07: Pests
Chapter A08: Pesticides
Chapter A09: Solid and Hazardous Wastes
Introduction
Objective: to provide definitions that are basic to the practice of environmental health.
1. Environmental Health:
"The area of public health that studies how the environment affects human health." In order to fully appreciate this definition, it is not enough to look at it in isolation! There are three terms within the above definition (public health, environment, and health) that need further definition. We will do that in the definitions below, but for now, there is a critical relationship we need to ponder: environment <----> humans Certainly the environment effects all organisms, but environmental health is centrally concerned with the effects on human health.
"The area of public health that studies how the environment affects human health."
In order to fully appreciate this definition, it is not enough to look at it in isolation! There are three terms within the above definition (public health, environment, and health) that need further definition. We will do that in the definitions below, but for now, there is a critical relationship we need to ponder:
environment <----> humans
Certainly the environment effects all organisms, but environmental health is centrally concerned with the effects on human health.
3. Public Health:
A group of disciplines devoted to: the prevention of disease and the promotion of health from the community perspective. Public Health is an extremely broad collection of professions as well as disciplines, and it is expanding all the time. Indeed, environmental health is expanding all the time! However, the above definition provides us with a philosophical base: the field is concerned with the prevention of disease and not merely the treatment of it. Taking what we know about the prevention of disease, we also promote healthy practices. And finally, we treat much more than the individual -- we treat the community. A relatively simple example may help. If a cholera epidemic is spreading throughout a community, it is not enough (under this definition) to simply take the victims to a doctor. It's expensive to take this approach, and some of the victims will die even when medical treatment is available. If we find the cause of the problem (for example, contaminated water supplies), we can prevent cholera by promoting healthy practices (for example, by boiling the water or, better yet, chlorinating the water). Finally, it has to be a community effort to be most effective -- ultimately it's easier and more effective to chlorinate the community water supply before it is delivered to the individual.
A group of disciplines devoted to:
Public Health is an extremely broad collection of professions as well as disciplines, and it is expanding all the time. Indeed, environmental health is expanding all the time! However, the above definition provides us with a philosophical base: the field is concerned with the prevention of disease and not merely the treatment of it. Taking what we know about the prevention of disease, we also promote healthy practices. And finally, we treat much more than the individual -- we treat the community.
A relatively simple example may help. If a cholera epidemic is spreading throughout a community, it is not enough (under this definition) to simply take the victims to a doctor. It's expensive to take this approach, and some of the victims will die even when medical treatment is available. If we find the cause of the problem (for example, contaminated water supplies), we can prevent cholera by promoting healthy practices (for example, by boiling the water or, better yet, chlorinating the water). Finally, it has to be a community effort to be most effective -- ultimately it's easier and more effective to chlorinate the community water supply before it is delivered to the individual.
4. Health (defined by the World Health Organization in 1948):
A state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Under this definition, health is an ideal that is never achieved! At first, this may sound very negative -- after all, it declares all humans to be not healthy! But at second glance, this can be an inspiring definition: it says that we can never take health for granted. The mere fact that you have no apparent disease or infirmity is no reason to be complacent. Environmental health professionals are constantly surveying the environment in search of health risks and ways to control them. Another example may help. As of this writing, we have not seen any follow-ups to the anthrax bioterrorism that followed the 9/11 attacks on America. Does this mean that we no longer need to be concerned about anthrax? Hardly. All the experts have said that the anthrax episodes could happen again, and common sense tells us that we need to be ever vigilant. I'm not talking about panic or irrational fears, but about a reasonable and watchful eye over the broad range of risks in our environment. The good news: this is exactly what environmental health professionals have been doing for over a century.
A state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Under this definition, health is an ideal that is never achieved! At first, this may sound very negative -- after all, it declares all humans to be not healthy! But at second glance, this can be an inspiring definition: it says that we can never take health for granted. The mere fact that you have no apparent disease or infirmity is no reason to be complacent. Environmental health professionals are constantly surveying the environment in search of health risks and ways to control them.
Another example may help. As of this writing, we have not seen any follow-ups to the anthrax bioterrorism that followed the 9/11 attacks on America. Does this mean that we no longer need to be concerned about anthrax? Hardly. All the experts have said that the anthrax episodes could happen again, and common sense tells us that we need to be ever vigilant. I'm not talking about panic or irrational fears, but about a reasonable and watchful eye over the broad range of risks in our environment. The good news: this is exactly what environmental health professionals have been doing for over a century.
5. Environment:
The sum of all external conditions and influences in human's surroundings, which include biological, chemical, physical, psychological, and sociological hazards. I have a more informal definition of environment: anything that is not me. Notice that this includes not only biological, chemical, and physical hazards (e.g., microbes, toxic chemicals, or radiation), but also the psychological and sociological hazards. Sometimes it is the fear that is more important than the risk itself. Make no mistake about it. environmental helath professionals have to recognize the psychological and sociological elements of a risk to be effective in managing it.
The sum of all external conditions and influences in human's surroundings, which include biological, chemical, physical, psychological, and sociological hazards.
I have a more informal definition of environment:
anything that is not me.
Notice that this includes not only biological, chemical, and physical hazards (e.g., microbes, toxic chemicals, or radiation), but also the psychological and sociological hazards. Sometimes it is the fear that is more important than the risk itself. Make no mistake about it. environmental helath professionals have to recognize the psychological and sociological elements of a risk to be effective in managing it.
6. Epidemiology:
The study of the distribution and determinants of disease. By determinants I mean the "cause" of a disease. We do this by examing the distribution rates. Some more important rates are defined below: prevalence: # of existing cases ("sick people") divided by the total population incidence: # of new cases in a time frame dvided by the # of people exposed We will be discussing a wide range of diseases, but for now there are three terms to define: carcinogenesis: to cause cancer mutagenesis: to cause genetic disorders teratogenesis: to cause birth defects
The study of the distribution and determinants of disease.
By determinants I mean the "cause" of a disease. We do this by examing the distribution rates. Some more important rates are defined below:
We will be discussing a wide range of diseases, but for now there are three terms to define:
7. Interaction of contaminants:
Finally, we need to be aware that exposures do not normally occur one at a time, but in combinations. We therefore need to study the interaction of contaminants. Three terms speak to this issue: synergism: two or more contaminants may act to multiply the health effects to an extent that would not be predicted simply by adding them together. For example, both asbestos and smoking are related to lung cancer, but the combination results in a risk far higher than would be predicted simply by adding them. I like to simplify this relationship in the following way: 1 + 1 = 3 potentiation: A normally harmless agent may combine with a risky agent to magnify the effect. I express this as: 1 + 0 = 2 antagonism: finally, there are times when two agents can cancel each other out, and the effect is far less than you would predict. I express this as: 1 + 1 = 0 The fundamental problem we face is this: among the literally thousands of agents to which we are potentially exposed, some may form synergims, some may form antagonisms, and some may combine with normally harmless agents to have a potentiation effect. To sort out these relationships is a daunting task!
Finally, we need to be aware that exposures do not normally occur one at a time, but in combinations. We therefore need to study the interaction of contaminants. Three terms speak to this issue:
1 + 1 = 3
1 + 0 = 2
1 + 1 = 0
The fundamental problem we face is this: among the literally thousands of agents to which we are potentially exposed, some may form synergims, some may form antagonisms, and some may combine with normally harmless agents to have a potentiation effect. To sort out these relationships is a daunting task!
A Context for Environmental Health
Objective: to set a context for my environmental health core lectures. Of course, it can help prepare you for my exams, but it may also help prepare you for future work as an environmental or occupational health professional.
As you will soon discover, my favorite answer to questions asked in class is "it depends." For example, "Is this chemical a health hazard?" Well, it depends on the exposure. "Can this microbe kill you?" It depends on who it infects. "How should you protect yourself against radiation exposures?" It depends on the type of radiation (as well as many other variables!).
If you've already studied statistics, you'll recognize each of these answers as dependent variables (hence the phrase "it depends"). To put it more simply, consider the context of each problem . Amateurs may happily accept simple answers, but professionals must dig for a deeper understanding. To do this, I suggest three major models for analyzing our environmental health issues.
1. Exposure - effect - control
This first context is really just a restatement of environmental health.
First, we study environmental issues primarily through human exposures. Second, we study health issues as the major effect of concern. Third, we differ from various scientific disciplines because we prescribe controls to help solve problems.
This model will help sort out your questions in chronological order . For example, I generally start each section by discussing the movement of agents through the environment. Be patient with your questions about health effects or environmental controls! We must first understand the sources of our environmental agents before we can address their health effects or specific controls.
2. Multi-media models
According to an EPA study in Philadelphia (some years ago), where was the largest single source of their air pollution? (Hint: it's not cars, because in this study they considered each car to be a single source). Give up? Their largest single source was a wastewater treatment plant! It turns out that it produced much more than a bad smell! This is a simple example of how treating one pollution (wastewater) leads to another form of pollution (air pollution). But why stop there? All of our environment is inter-linked! Can treatment processes chase pollution in circles?
Consider the three major phases in nature: solid, liquid, and gas
water-air: this is represented by the Philadelphia study mentioned earlier. Further examples include: air-water: acid rain (rain cleans the air but can damage the rest of the environment). water-solid: wastewater sludge is the solids left over after treatment. solid-water: if we place solid waste into landfills, all too often they end up leaking into groundwater supplies. air-solid: various filters can remove particulates from air pollution, but the collected residue may be a nasty solid waste. solid-air: incinerators can dispose of solid wastes but may create air pollution.
In each case, good intentions for resolving one problem result in creation of another problem. So, what's the real problem? It is the nature of humans to be caught in vicious cycles , and the only way to break from these cycles is to see a larger picture. In this case, the larger picture is the multi-media nature of environmental problems.
This leads me to a warning. This class focuses on separate media of the environment (e.g., air and water). We must use these conceptual building blocks to introduce various terms in our profession. However, our true challenge is to go beyond that.
3. Who, what, when, where, how, why
Environmental health involves the work of a detective. We must constantly make diagnoses of environmental problems and prescribe solutions. The key questions, which we call interrogatives , are the same for any detective: who, what, when, where, how, and why.
Who? Who are the high risk groups? For example, are they the elderly, or newborns? Who can help us solve the problem? For example, do we need a lawyer? Teamwork is essential to every environmental health professional, and the development of a network of professionals is an important aspect addressed by this interrogative.
Also, the context of environmental health depends on the participants. Journalists look for the more sensational elements of a story, but they ask the same interrogatives. Attorneys, of course, take a more legalistic tone, but they too use the same interrogatives. Rock musicians, movie and television actors, and other public figures may also gain attention by asking these interrogatives, although what may be most notable are the questions that they don't ask. All play an important role in environmental issues, and risk communication helps us in addressing these different groups.
What? What's the problem? What's the solution? Risk assessment helps answer these questions, because the real root of most environmental problems is usually an underlying risk. Risk assessment also addresses questions of when and where.
When? When is this a problem? By understanding the timing of an environmental problem, we can prescribe preventive action. Life cycle analysis is especially helpful in analyzing this part of the problem. Acute problems with a short lifetime are sometimes more dramatic and easier to understand, but chronic problems dominate our societies and are more demanding for life cycle analysis.
Where? Where is this a problem? Our previous discussion that considered a multi-media perspective is a perfect example of this question. Furthermore, we can ask "what is the spatial scope of environmental evaluation?" For example, is it indoors only? If it includes outdoors, is it regional or global in scope?
How? How should we analyze this problem? Our choice among analytic methods has a huge influence on the solutions we prescribe. For example, if a citizen complains about water quality, is it a chemical question or is it a psychological question? A psychologist might analyze the fears and concerns of this citizen, while a chemist would examine water content. Which approach is right? Well, it depends. If that citizen is a paranoid schizophrenic complaining of marijuana contaminating her drinking water supply, then most would agree this is a psychological problem. (It's hard to believe, but yes, such a complaint really happened to me some years ago!). However, if remnants of a documented gasoline spill were making their way towards a known groundwater supply, then a background in chemistry is essential. (Yes, this too is another one of my true stories). The multi-disciplinary nature of environmental health constantly challenges us with which method is most appropriate. I gave you some easy examples, but we will soon see that this question is formidable.
Why? In enforcement activities, why do we require a given action? The answer is usually that it's the law! But how do we examine laws? Risk management offers us insights into this question. What is our ultimate professional purpose: do we save lives, money, or energy, or do simply save face? Environmental health professionals would most likely answer that our purpose is to save lives. An economist would answer money, and a physicist would answer energy (and make a powerful argument with the laws of thermodynamics and environmental sustainability). But politicians, long known for saving face, would usually have final word in the form of law. All of these answers play a role.
Risk Analysis
Objective: to provide a model for analyzing the various risks associated with environmental health.
Risk analysis is a broad term that represents a collection of approaches and disciplines devoted to all aspects of risk issues. At a minimum, risk analysis includes 1) risk assessment, 2) risk communication, and 3) risk management (all defined below).
Risk assessment is the characterization of adverse effects from exposure to hazards. Probably the simplest example of this characterization is to say "the risk of cancer from a lifetime of exposure to "chemical X" is greater than one out of a million." More formally, risk assessment includes four steps defined below: hazard identification, dose response assessent, exposure assessment, and risk characterization.
Hazard identification is to determine whether a particular agent is causally linked to particular health effects. For example, does this chemical cause cancer? Dose-Response Assessment is to determine the relationship between the magnitude of exposure and the probability of occurrence of health effects in question. For example, one ounce of "chemical X" will kill 50% of laboratory mice. Exposure Assessment is to determine the extent of human exposure (this is especially useful both before or after the application of regulatory controls). For example, after the Clean Air Act revisions have been put into place, the exposure to the average citizen to "chemical X" is 50% of the allowable standard. Risk characterization is to describe the nature and often the magnitude of human risk, including attendant uncertainty. For example, "chemical X" may cause cancer deaths in anywhere from 3 to100 people in Los Angeles over the next 20 years.
Hazard identification is to determine whether a particular agent is causally linked to particular health effects. For example, does this chemical cause cancer?
Dose-Response Assessment is to determine the relationship between the magnitude of exposure and the probability of occurrence of health effects in question. For example, one ounce of "chemical X" will kill 50% of laboratory mice.
Exposure Assessment is to determine the extent of human exposure (this is especially useful both before or after the application of regulatory controls). For example, after the Clean Air Act revisions have been put into place, the exposure to the average citizen to "chemical X" is 50% of the allowable standard.
Risk characterization is to describe the nature and often the magnitude of human risk, including attendant uncertainty. For example, "chemical X" may cause cancer deaths in anywhere from 3 to100 people in Los Angeles over the next 20 years.
Risk communication is an interactive exchange of information and opinions among individuals, groups, and institutions regarding risk.
Risk management is the evaluation, selection, and implementation of alternative risk control actions.
Legal concepts
Objective: to provide legal definitions that form the basis for environmental controls.
NOTE: By necessity, these definitions are introductory. I recommend the environmental health law course for a much more complete discussion of these concepts.
A. General
1. law: binding requirements imposed by government. Law is a general term that includes the wide variety of legal tools that are used by government. Fundamental to understanding legal relationships are the next two terms: rights and duties. 2. rights: a power, privilege, or interest, protected by law. For example, environmental health professionals are accorded special legal powers in carrying out their job. Some of these powers are discussed below in section C. 3. duties: the corresponding responsibility to respect a right. Just as environmental health professionals have special legal powers, they also have special duties that are beyond those of average citizens. Some of these duties are discussed in section D. 4. stare decisus: a latin phrase that means "the decision stands." This concept is critical in legal research because it says that the most recent legal decision rendered by a court stands as a precedent (unless it is overturned). In practice, this means that the most recent legal decision is often the best predictor of future legal decisions. While by no means a hard and fast rule, it does mean that legal research is one of the best ways to predict court action.
1. law: binding requirements imposed by government.
Law is a general term that includes the wide variety of legal tools that are used by government. Fundamental to understanding legal relationships are the next two terms: rights and duties.
2. rights: a power, privilege, or interest, protected by law.
For example, environmental health professionals are accorded special legal powers in carrying out their job. Some of these powers are discussed below in section C.
3. duties: the corresponding responsibility to respect a right.
Just as environmental health professionals have special legal powers, they also have special duties that are beyond those of average citizens. Some of these duties are discussed in section D.
4. stare decisus: a latin phrase that means "the decision stands."
This concept is critical in legal research because it says that the most recent legal decision rendered by a court stands as a precedent (unless it is overturned). In practice, this means that the most recent legal decision is often the best predictor of future legal decisions. While by no means a hard and fast rule, it does mean that legal research is one of the best ways to predict court action.
B. Types of law (by precedence)
5. constitutional: fundamental laws of a government (the highest precedent of law) Most people are aware of federal and state constitutions, but city charters are also included under constitutional law. 6. statutory: laws passed by vote of legislature or public. This includes state and federal statutes, of course, but also includes local ordinances and public referenda. 7. administrative: laws written by appointed officials (i.e., agencies) The last century has seen a huge growth in administrative law. One reason for this: scientific expertise is more likely to be found found within various agencies, and not within our legislatures. Therefore, our elected officials pass statutory law that instruct agencies to develop the specific standards. In other words, the statutes lay out the principles, and the administrative law implements those principles. Administrative law includes regulations and rules. 8. common: laws taken from previous court decisions. What if there are no statutes or regulations that address a specific legal issue? It is still possible to challenge environmental activities under common law, which refers to the accumulation of previous court decisions that are separate from statutes, regulations, or contracts. Common law is the lowest precedent in this group, and includes nuisance laws and eminent domain (discussed in the next section).
5. constitutional: fundamental laws of a government (the highest precedent of law)
Most people are aware of federal and state constitutions, but city charters are also included under constitutional law.
6. statutory: laws passed by vote of legislature or public.
This includes state and federal statutes, of course, but also includes local ordinances and public referenda.
7. administrative: laws written by appointed officials (i.e., agencies)
The last century has seen a huge growth in administrative law. One reason for this: scientific expertise is more likely to be found found within various agencies, and not within our legislatures. Therefore, our elected officials pass statutory law that instruct agencies to develop the specific standards. In other words, the statutes lay out the principles, and the administrative law implements those principles. Administrative law includes regulations and rules.
8. common: laws taken from previous court decisions.
What if there are no statutes or regulations that address a specific legal issue? It is still possible to challenge environmental activities under common law, which refers to the accumulation of previous court decisions that are separate from statutes, regulations, or contracts. Common law is the lowest precedent in this group, and includes nuisance laws and eminent domain (discussed in the next section).
C. Other fundamental powers
9. nuisance laws: government may limit use of property if it harms others or is "unreasonable." The problem here is that it is often difficult to predict what is "unreasonable." Consider this simple example: if dog droppings are three feet deep and the odor is detectable to 500 homes in the area, we could be confident that this is a public niusance. If there is only one dog dropping that is detectable to nobody in the area, we could be equally confident that it is not a nuisance. However, at what point do these accumulation of dog droppings start to be considered a public nuisance (i.e., unreasonable)? This is a difficult question to answer, and represents the kind of issues we find under nuisance laws. 10.eminent domain: government may "take" property if: it is for the public interest, and fair compensation is made. It is possible that fair compensation may be zero dollars, but it may also be substantial. An example of eminent domain is the embargo of faulty restaurant equipment, if that equipment represents a risk to food safety to the public. 11.police power: government must have power to enforce its own regulations This constitutional power refers to more than simply the development of a police force. It is a justification for the creation of agencies, and it is the fundamental power that environmental health professionals have in enforcing environmental health laws. 12.subpoena: a court order for records or witnesses in court. I like to mention this power because it involves more than witnesses. Almost everyone knows that they could receive a subpoena to testify in court, but fewer realize that their records are subject to subpoena. Virtually everything that an environmental health professional writes could be subject to subpoena. Certainly it is wise to consider this possibility in everything that you write.
9. nuisance laws: government may limit use of property if it harms others or is "unreasonable."
The problem here is that it is often difficult to predict what is "unreasonable." Consider this simple example: if dog droppings are three feet deep and the odor is detectable to 500 homes in the area, we could be confident that this is a public niusance. If there is only one dog dropping that is detectable to nobody in the area, we could be equally confident that it is not a nuisance. However, at what point do these accumulation of dog droppings start to be considered a public nuisance (i.e., unreasonable)? This is a difficult question to answer, and represents the kind of issues we find under nuisance laws.
10.eminent domain: government may "take" property if:
it is for the public interest, and fair compensation is made. It is possible that fair compensation may be zero dollars, but it may also be substantial. An example of eminent domain is the embargo of faulty restaurant equipment, if that equipment represents a risk to food safety to the public.
11.police power: government must have power to enforce its own regulations
This constitutional power refers to more than simply the development of a police force. It is a justification for the creation of agencies, and it is the fundamental power that environmental health professionals have in enforcing environmental health laws.
12.subpoena: a court order for records or witnesses in court.
I like to mention this power because it involves more than witnesses. Almost everyone knows that they could receive a subpoena to testify in court, but fewer realize that their records are subject to subpoena. Virtually everything that an environmental health professional writes could be subject to subpoena. Certainly it is wise to consider this possibility in everything that you write.
D. Responsibilities
1. malfeasance: unauthorized (wrongful) act by an official. For example, taking a bribe is clearly an unauthorized act. 2. misfeasance: authorized act in an unauthorized manner. This term is a reminder that the responsibilities of environmental health professionals go beyond simple malfeasance. A relatively simple example: we have the authority to close down restaurants (thus. it is not malfeasance), but we must do so according to the law. 3. nonfeasance: failure to perform duty (without adequate excuse). This term is an even deeper reminder that the responsibilities of environmental health professionals are beyond the average citizen. For example, suppose it is 4:30 on a Friday afternoon, and you are inspecting a restaurant. You find human feces flowing down the middle of the food preparation area (incredible as it sounds, this actually happened to me!). The paperwork and the action of closing this place down would take far more than a half hour, and yet the work day (in this example) ends at 5 p.m. However, to simply walk away from this clear public hazard would be an act of nonfeasance. The duty can indeed extend beyond the normal 9 to 5 routine. 4. due process: fairness and completeness of laws Court cases typically involve multiple reports, letters, pictures, meetings, and so on. Why so much documentation? Due process requires that we demonstrate the fairness and completeness of our actions. 5. equal protection: consistency of law If we inspected all Mexican restaurants twice as often as all other restaurants, simply because they were Mexican, this would clearly be a violation of equal protection. However, if we inspected a specific, particular Mexican restaurant twice as often as all others (including all other Mexican restaurants) because there was adequate evidence that it had unsafe practices in food preparation, this would be based on risk and would not be a violation. My example is a simple one, and often the real cases are far more challenging. 6. exclusionary rule: evidence must be legally obtained Television and movies would sometimes have us believe that enforcement is simply a matter of breaking the door down, gathering the evidence, and sending all the bad guys to jail. But "breaking the door down" would often mean that all that evidence was illegally obtained. Again, the burden placed on environmental health professionals (and rightfully so) is to obtain all evidence legally. 7. demurrer: admit to facts but challenge legal propriety If evidence was illegally obtained, the defendant would be expected to file a demurrer.
1. malfeasance: unauthorized (wrongful) act by an official.
For example, taking a bribe is clearly an unauthorized act.
2. misfeasance: authorized act in an unauthorized manner.
This term is a reminder that the responsibilities of environmental health professionals go beyond simple malfeasance. A relatively simple example: we have the authority to close down restaurants (thus. it is not malfeasance), but we must do so according to the law.
3. nonfeasance: failure to perform duty (without adequate excuse).
This term is an even deeper reminder that the responsibilities of environmental health professionals are beyond the average citizen. For example, suppose it is 4:30 on a Friday afternoon, and you are inspecting a restaurant. You find human feces flowing down the middle of the food preparation area (incredible as it sounds, this actually happened to me!). The paperwork and the action of closing this place down would take far more than a half hour, and yet the work day (in this example) ends at 5 p.m. However, to simply walk away from this clear public hazard would be an act of nonfeasance. The duty can indeed extend beyond the normal 9 to 5 routine.
4. due process: fairness and completeness of laws
Court cases typically involve multiple reports, letters, pictures, meetings, and so on. Why so much documentation? Due process requires that we demonstrate the fairness and completeness of our actions.
5. equal protection: consistency of law
If we inspected all Mexican restaurants twice as often as all other restaurants, simply because they were Mexican, this would clearly be a violation of equal protection. However, if we inspected a specific, particular Mexican restaurant twice as often as all others (including all other Mexican restaurants) because there was adequate evidence that it had unsafe practices in food preparation, this would be based on risk and would not be a violation. My example is a simple one, and often the real cases are far more challenging.
6. exclusionary rule: evidence must be legally obtained
Television and movies would sometimes have us believe that enforcement is simply a matter of breaking the door down, gathering the evidence, and sending all the bad guys to jail. But "breaking the door down" would often mean that all that evidence was illegally obtained. Again, the burden placed on environmental health professionals (and rightfully so) is to obtain all evidence legally.
7. demurrer: admit to facts but challenge legal propriety
If evidence was illegally obtained, the defendant would be expected to file a demurrer.
E. Approaches:
8. litigation: to settle a dispute in a court of law 9. arbitration: to settle a dispute out of court in a binding settlement with the services a disinterested person 10. negotiation: to settle a dispute out of court in a nonbinding settlement between the interested parties 11. administrative hearings: formal and informal means to gather information and clarify positions
8. litigation: to settle a dispute in a court of law
9. arbitration: to settle a dispute out of court in a binding settlement with the services a disinterested person
10. negotiation: to settle a dispute out of court in a nonbinding settlement between the interested parties
11. administrative hearings: formal and informal means to gather information and clarify positions
F. Other
12. NEPA: National Environmental Policy Act (1969) No discussion of environmental law would be complete without mentioning NEPA (in California, the California Environmental Quality Act, or CEQA). All projects funded by the federal government that may have impacts on the environment are required to submit environmental impact statements
12. NEPA: National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
No discussion of environmental law would be complete without mentioning NEPA (in California, the California Environmental Quality Act, or CEQA). All projects funded by the federal government that may have impacts on the environment are required to submit environmental impact statements
HYPERNEWS
This page simulates what the hypernews pages will look like. The critical areas (i.e., where to double-click the mouse) are generally in bold and larger font. My own instructions are added in red font. 1. On any of my course web pages, select "Hypernews," and then select the appropriate course. For example, if you were taking my risk class (H.S. 469), you would click on "Hypernews" and get the following screen: This site is used for various activities within Hypernews. Messages [ Display All ] [ Outline All ] 356a by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:32 356b by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:33 553 by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:34 353 by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:34 469 by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:40 <----- click here for 469 [ Add Message ] to: "Hatfield's Hypernews" [Members] [Admin Mode] [Show Frames] [Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group:/thatfield)1.10 ] 2. We continue with the 469 site as an example. If you wanted to add a message to this site, you would click on "Add Message" as indicated below: 469 Forum: Hatfield's Hypernews Date: Jan 03, 16:33 From: Tom Hatfield <vchsc006@csun.edu> This is for 469 hypernews. [ Next-in-Thread ] [ Next Message ] Messages [ Display All ] [ Outline All ] 1. For test messages, click here. by Tom Hatfield, Jan 22, 19:55 <----- (click here to enter 2. Click here for general questions. by Tom Hatfield, Jan 22, 19:57 the subsections) [Add Message] to: "469" <------------------------------------ (click here to "Add message" to this section) [Members] [Admin Mode] [Show Frames] [Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield) 1.10 ] 3. Enter the appropriate information only where indicated below with red arrows, Be sure to skip all the other entries. Also, be sure to enter your name! Hypernews may describe it as "optional," but it is essential if you wish to receive credit for your assignments in my classes! Edit Message You are adding a Message to: "Module 7A" Your message should be related to the subject named above. If it is not, please do not add your message here. Instead, first find the appropriate page and add your message there. If you just want to test this system, please do it on the Test Forum. If you are a frequent contributor to forums at this site, you should become a member. If you are unfamiliar with HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield), please see the instructions for details. From (User ID or Email address, if you are a member of HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield)): Password at HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield): If you are not a member of HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield), please enter the following instead. Email Address (required if you want to be notified): <----- click here and type in information Your name (optional): <----- click here and type in information Title (describe your message, no HTML tags allowed): <----- click here and type in information Choose a format for your message: Word Processor: Wrap long lines, break lines at hard Returns, preserve leading blanks and tabs, and use a fixed-width font. URLs and email addresses will be made into links. Smart Text: Format paragraphs separated by blank lines. If you begin any lines with spaces or tabs, the whole paragraph will not be formatted. Lines beginning with a common prefix (for instance, ">") are also unformatted. URLs and email addresses will be made into links. Enter your message here: <----- click in box and type in message <----- click here when you're done Please preview your message before posting. The preview page shows your message the way it will appear to readers. You may post your message from the preview page or return to this page to edit it (use your browser Back button to get back here), then preview again and send. To cancel your message, just don't submit it. 4. If you're satisfied with the preview of your message, post it by clicking as indicated below. Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield) To Edit your message, go Back to the previous page, change your text, and then preview again. To Cancel, just don't post. When you are ready to Post your message, push the button below. Posting may take some time, so please be patient. Please don't post the same message more than once and don't reload this preview page. <----- click here 5. You can now see your posted message. If you return to the previous hypernews pages, be sure to "reload" so that your addition will be seen. Your title should be here Forum: 469 Re: Chapter 7 (Tom Hatfield) Re: Module 7A (Tom Hatfield) Date: Sep 28, 09:58 From: <Anonymous> Your message should be here.
This page simulates what the hypernews pages will look like. The critical areas (i.e., where to double-click the mouse) are generally in bold and larger font. My own instructions are added in red font. 1. On any of my course web pages, select "Hypernews," and then select the appropriate course. For example, if you were taking my risk class (H.S. 469), you would click on "Hypernews" and get the following screen:
This site is used for various activities within Hypernews. Messages [ Display All ] [ Outline All ] 356a by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:32 356b by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:33 553 by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:34 353 by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:34 469 by Tom Hatfield, Jan 03, 16:40 <----- click here for 469 [ Add Message ] to: "Hatfield's Hypernews" [Members] [Admin Mode] [Show Frames] [Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group:/thatfield)1.10 ]
2. We continue with the 469 site as an example. If you wanted to add a message to this site, you would click on "Add Message" as indicated below:
469 Forum: Hatfield's Hypernews Date: Jan 03, 16:33 From: Tom Hatfield <vchsc006@csun.edu> This is for 469 hypernews. [ Next-in-Thread ] [ Next Message ] Messages [ Display All ] [ Outline All ] 1. For test messages, click here. by Tom Hatfield, Jan 22, 19:55 <----- (click here to enter 2. Click here for general questions. by Tom Hatfield, Jan 22, 19:57 the subsections) [Add Message] to: "469" <------------------------------------ (click here to "Add message" to this section) [Members] [Admin Mode] [Show Frames] [Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield) 1.10 ]
469
Forum: Hatfield's Hypernews Date: Jan 03, 16:33 From: Tom Hatfield <vchsc006@csun.edu>
This is for 469 hypernews.
Messages [ Display All ] [ Outline All ]
1. For test messages, click here. by Tom Hatfield, Jan 22, 19:55 <----- (click here to enter 2. Click here for general questions. by Tom Hatfield, Jan 22, 19:57 the subsections) [Add Message] to: "469" <------------------------------------ (click here to "Add message" to this section) [Members] [Admin Mode] [Show Frames] [Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield) 1.10 ]
3. Enter the appropriate information only where indicated below with red arrows, Be sure to skip all the other entries. Also, be sure to enter your name! Hypernews may describe it as "optional," but it is essential if you wish to receive credit for your assignments in my classes!
Edit Message
From (User ID or Email address, if you are a member of HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield)):
Password at HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield):
If you are not a member of HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield), please enter the following instead.
Email Address (required if you want to be notified): <----- click here and type in information
Your name (optional): <----- click here and type in information
Title (describe your message, no HTML tags allowed): <----- click here and type in information
Choose a format for your message:
<----- click here when you're done
4. If you're satisfied with the preview of your message, post it by clicking as indicated below.
Help for HyperNews at hyper.vcsun.org (group: /thatfield) To Edit your message, go Back to the previous page, change your text, and then preview again. To Cancel, just don't post. When you are ready to Post your message, push the button below. Posting may take some time, so please be patient. Please don't post the same message more than once and don't reload this preview page. <----- click here
To Edit your message, go Back to the previous page, change your text, and then preview again.
<----- click here
5. You can now see your posted message. If you return to the previous hypernews pages, be sure to "reload" so that your addition will be seen.
Your title should be here Forum: 469 Re: Chapter 7 (Tom Hatfield) Re: Module 7A (Tom Hatfield) Date: Sep 28, 09:58 From: <Anonymous> Your message should be here.
Your title should be here
Your message should be here.
Test your knowledge with a: quiz
For more information, try: Introduction