John Paul Adams, CSUN
john.p.adams@csun.edu
Stephanus Baluzius [Étienne Baluze], Miscellaneorum Liber Sextus (Paris: apud Franciscum Muguet 1683) pages 527-531 [Migne, Patrologiae Latinae Cursus Completus Tomus 151, columns 284-285:
Urbanus Episcopus, servus servorum Dei, Hugoni reverendissimo Abbati Cluniacensi omnique ejus sancto conventui salutem et apostolicam benedictionem.
Quoniam sanctitatem vestram satis avidam exaltationis Romanae Ecclesiae novimus, ea quae circa nos acta sunt compendio vobis notificare curamus. Notum itaque facimus dilectioni vestrae quod paud Terracinam Campaniae civitatem sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Episcopi et Cardinales, Portuensis videlicet, Sabinensis, Tusculanus, Albanensis, et Signensis cum aliis Episcopis numero XVI. et Abbatibus quatuor aliisque quam plurimis viris religiosis convenientes, cum Portuensis Episcopus omnium Romanorum clericorum catholicae parti faventium se legatum diceret, Abbas vero Cassinensis Cardinalis Diaconus caeterorum Diaconorum, P. quoque Cardinalis tituli Sancti Clementis omnium Cardinalium, Praefectus autem urbis laicorum omnium se ferre assereret legationem, cumque post triduanum jejunium supplicationibus multis magnisque ad Deum precibus vehementer insisterent, quod ego quidem omnino dignus non fui, tandem me sibi quarto Idus Martii [March 12, 1088] in Pontificem elegerunt. Quibus, Deum testor, non ambitionis causa nec alicujus dignitatis desiderio assensum praebui, sed quia tot tantisque viris inobediens esse verebar; talique qualii tempore si quantum ad me periclitanti Ecclesiae non subvenirem, Deum me offendere metuebam; praesertim cum praedecessores meos viros omni veneratione dignos, Gregorium scilicet atque Victorem, hoc sibi divine praecepisse asserunt. Rogo igitur, desiderantissime, nimiumque te deprecor ut si qua tibi sunt pietatis viscera, si qua filii et alumni tui est tibi memoria, me multum id cupientem tua praesentia consolari sanctamque matrem tuam Romanam Ecclesiam, si unquam possibile fuerit, tuo multum nobis optabili adventu visitare digneris. At vero si id fieri nequit, ut tales de filiis tuis confratribus meis te ad nos mandare non pigeat, in quibus te videam, te suscipiam, tuae consolationis in immensis perturbationibus positus verba cognoscam, qui tuam caritatem, tuaeque dilectionis affectum mihi repraesentent, qui qualiter et tu omniumque fratrum nostrorum se habeat congregatio mihi denuntient. Precor autem ut omnem sanctorum fratrum congregationem commonere facias ut apud omnipotentis Dei clementiam preces effundant quatenus et nos et Ecclesiam suam sanctam, quae tantis videtur subjacere periculis, in pristinum restaurare statum dignetur. Noveris inim ..... specialius hoc negotium super te pendere. Vale.
Datum III. Idus Martii apud Terracinam.
A letter with a similar but not identical text was sent by Pope Urban II to the Archbishop of Salzburg, five bishops, and abbots (Migne, PL 151, 283-284; Watterich I, 576-577), and no doubt many others.
At the end of the 11th century, it was not unheard of for a dying pope to attempt to designate his successor; indeed, this was a custom, irregularly observed, down to the 19th century. Cardinals often took the advice of their dying leader. They were, however, constrained by the Constitution of Nicholas II, which placed the responsibility for recommending the name of a new pope in the hands of the Cardinal Bishops, who would then submit a name to the rest of the Cardinals, and then to the clerics and then the people of Rome, for their approval.
Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand) had been driven from Rome by his own subjects. They were angry at the behavior of the troops of Duke Robert Guiscard, who had rescued the pope from the army of Emperor Henry IV. Henry's men, however, occupied Rome, and the Roman clergy and people had elected Henry's pope, Clement III (Guibert/Wibert of Parma), as their pope, repudiating Gregory VII, and enthroned Clement in the Lateran Basilica on March 24, 1084. Henry himself was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by "Clement III" on Easter, March 31, 1084. Pope Gregory fled to Montecassino, and then Salerno. On his deathbed at Salerno (May 1085), Gregory named three desirable successors [ Hugo Flaviniacensis Chronicon II, MGH SS 8, p. 466, derived from a letter of Urban II, who was an eyewitness]:
It is said, that, at the time of Gregory's death, each of the three was elsewhere; Anselm attending upon Countess Mathilda, Odo on an embassy in Germany, and Hugh in his diocese in France.
Paulus Bernriedensis (died ca. 1146-1150) wrote [Watterich I, p. 539]:
Praeterea [Gregorius] rogatus ut in tanta fidelium perturbatione sibi successorem et ecclesiae contra praenominatum adulterum designaret ultorem, trium dedit optionem, videlicet: Desiderii, cardinalis et abbatis coenobii Casinensis; atque reverendissimorum episcoporum Ottonis Ostiensis; et Hugo Lugdunensis. Verum quia Otto nondum a Germaniae et Galliae partibus redierat, ubi Apostolica legatione functus..., Hugo quoque sua lustrans gubernacula procul aberat: interim suasit eligi vicinum Desiderium , licet brevissime victurum, non tamen absque typo victoriae Victorem esse appellandum.
But the election of a new pope did not take place for nearly a year, and by that time two of the candidates were present (Odo and Hugh) and the third (not Desiderius, but Anselm of Lucca) had died. Paulus' remarks betray his own maladroit manipulation of his source material, or an Italian literary tradition already manipulated, and disqualify him as a witness.
Peter the Deacon of Montecassino, however, says that the choice of Pope Gregory was Abbot Desiderius, Cardinalis Sancti Petri et abbas sancti Benedicti [Peter the Deacon Chronicon III. 65; MGH SS 7, 747; Migne, PL 148, column 1309]:
...interrogatus ante diem tertium obitus sui ab episcopis et cardinalibus, qui tunc una cum Desiderio praesentes erant, quid post suum obitum de Romanae sedis ordinatione iuberet; respondit, ut si unquam aliquo modo possent, eundem Desiderium ad hoc officium promoverent. Is enim praeter id quod primum presbyter cardinalis Romanae tunc ecclesiae esset, et prudentia maxima, et religione singulari, et principum circummanentium amicitia multa polleret. Si vero hunc nullatenus flectere ad ista valerent, aut archiepiscopum Lugdunensem Ugonem, aut Ottonem Hostiensem, aut Lucensem episcopum, quem prius ex is habere possent, in papam eligere post suum obitum quantocius festinarent.
One must wonder, at this point, whether the Benedictine tradition is manipulating the story to the benefit of one of its own.
An attempt at an election did not take place, however, until a year after Gregory's death. Gregory had been driven out of Rome by Henry IV, and the city was occupied by the Antipope "Clement III" (elected pope by the Romans on March 24, 1184) [Gregorovius IV. 1, pp. 238-248]. Robert Guiscard and the Normans, beginning on May 28, 1184, had attacked the Imperialists in Rome and had destroyed a good deal of the city. They had taken a number of prisoners back to the south with them, including the Imperial Prefect of the City. The people of Rome remembered the Norman sack for centuries thereafter, and pitched their politics against the Normans and in favor of the Empire. "The sack of Rome remains a dark stain on Gregory's history, and also on that of Guiscard." {Gregorovius, p. 247-248]. It was some time before it was safe for the Cardinals to return to what was left of the city. In the meantime, Robewrt Guiscard had died, on July 17, 1085, and was succeeded by his son Roger.
When they finally began to attend to business, none of the Roman cardinals could have been cheered by the thought of becoming Pope. The attention of the Cardinals came to be directed, not toward one of Pope Gregory's recommendations, but instead toward Cardinal Desiderius of S. Cecilia, the Abbot of Monte Cassino. He was an Italian, related to the princely family of Benevento, a reformer in the Gregorian and Cluniac mode, and someone who was friendly with the Norman Duke Roger—whose protection against the Imperialists and aid in restoring the Papacy to Rome was essential. He had interceded with Pope Gregory in 1180 on behalf of Duke Roger, and obtained the revocation of the excommunication against him [Petrus Diaconus, MGH SS 7, 736]. He was also Apostolic Vicar for southern Italy [Hirsch, p. 91 and n. 1]. Unfortunately, as Bernoldus pointed out, iam pluribus annis infirmus et in eadem infirmitate ordinatus [est].
On May 24, 1186, the 59 year old Cardinal and Abbot was certainly the leading candidate in the eyes of the electors. Abbot Desiderius, however, refused the election, many times, as any sensible person would, as he gazed at the physical and social ruins of Rome. Desiderius even indicated, when asked, that he would prefer to see Odo of Castillon, the Bishop of Ostia, elected. One of the Cardinals even protested that the proceedings were uncanonical, perhaps (it is conjectured—foolishly) because the election of Odo would involve the translation of a bishop from one see to another [H. Mann, Lives of the Popes VII, 221]. But that was an issue long settled; Alexander II, for example, had been Bishop of Florence. It is abundantly clear that Desiderius did not want the papacy, and that he was being put under extraordinary pressure. The proceedings thus far had been tumultuous.
Thereupon, the Cardinals assembled in the ruins of the City, at the Deaconry of S. Lucia in Saepta Solis, in the valley to the east of the Palatine Hill, and formally elected Desiderius according to the canons (May 24, 1186). He assumed the name Victor III. They put the red pluviale on his shoulders, but they could not get him to put on the alb. His supporters were also unable to get him consecrated and crowned. The imperial opposition, led by the Imperial Prefect of the City— who had been released after the death of Robert Guiscard —had organized an anti-Norman resistance in the city, and they held control over the Vatican Basilica. Four days after the election, Victor left Rome and went to Ardea and then Terracina. He abandoned the use of all the papal regalia, and returned to his residence at the Monastery of Montecassino. During this time, however, the question of the canonical validity of Desiderius' election was again raised, and by Desiderius himself, according to Hugh, the Archbishop of Lyons. He appeared to have abandoned the trappings of the papacy, and refused again or resigned the papal office. During all that time since May 24, 1186, he had signed no papal document [The single reference to the Electoral Manifesto in Bernoldus' Chronicon ad annum 1187 (JL 5342) is highly problematical, both as to date and to content].
A meeting held at Capua in March, 1187 [JL I, p. 655; Petrus Diaconus Chronicon III. 68], which included the Norman Duke Roger, Jordanus the Prince of Capua, the Cardinals, and Cencius the Consul of Rome, again placed extreme pressure on Victor to relent and actually assume the papacy. He was only consecrated and crowned finally on May 9, 1087, by Odo Bishop of Ostia [Hugo Flaviniacensis (Hugh de Flavigny), Chronicon Book II, MGH SS 8, p. 468] but then he immediately returned to his monastery at Montecassino. He was summoned back to Rome by Countess Mathilda of Tuscany, but most of the city remained in the hands of his enemies and the imperial anti-pope. In July he was forced to leave the city again, thanks to the arrival of fresh imperial troops. During a stay at Beneventum in August of 1187, Victor III held a synod, during which he excommunicated Cardinal Richard, Abbot of St. Victor in Marseille and Archbishop Hugh of Lyons. [J.-D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio 20, column 640; Migne PL 149 columns 966-967]. He died on September 16 of the same year, only four months and one week after his coronation. The last lines of his funeral inscription acknowledges that he was pope for only four and a half months, i.e. from May 9, 1087, not from May 24, 1186 [Augustinus Olduin, Athenaeum Romanum (Perugia 1676), p. 180; Gregorovius, The Tombs of the Popes (Westminster 1903), p. 43]:
...Hoc senis lustris minus anno functus honore,
Quatuor et semis vix mensibus inde peractis
Bis sex lustra gerens [60 years], mortuus hic tumulor,
Solis virgineo stabat lux ultima signo,
Cum me sol verus hinc tulit ipse Deus.
Three days before his death, Victor III (1086-1087) had Dom Oderisius made Abbot of Monte Cassino (a position which Victor himself, who had been Abbot of Montecassino before his election, had not relinquished until that very moment), and he designated Odo of Castillon as his intended successor ("Life of Victor III," by Leo and Peter, Monks of Monte Cassino, Watterich I, 570):
Hoc statuto, omnium monachorum unanimi consensu, praefatis episcopis in eodem capitulo residentibus atque confirmantibus, domnum Oderisium religiosum valde virum et Romanum diaconum, qui tunc in hoc monasterio praepositurae fungebatur officio, abbatem constituit. Post haec, convocatis eisdem episcopis et cardinalibus, monuit atque praecepit ut juxta quod predecessor suus Papa Gregorius jam dudum decreverat, Ottonem Ostiensem episcopum in Papam eligere quanto possent citius persuderent eumque, quia presens erat, manu apprehendens caeteris episcopis tradidit, dicens, "Accipite eum et in Romanam Ecclesiam ordinate meamque vicem in omnibus, quousque id facere possitis, habete." His ita dispositis sepulchrum sibi construi in absida ipsius capituli iussit atque post diem tertium feliciter migravit ad Dominum XVI Kal. Octobris, anno dominicae incarnationis 1087.
Indeed, since he himself was dying, and since Anselm of Lucca had died during the Sede Vacante [March 18, 1086], and since Hugh of Lyons was Victor's most vigorous opponent and an excommunicate, the only other candidate of those named by Gregory VII on his deathbed was Odo of Castillon, Bishop of Ostia.
The Cardinals and others who participated in the Election of March 1088, following the death of Pope Victor III, numbered some forty persons. They certainly included:
One of those cardinals who certainly did not attend was Cardinal Richard, Abbot of S. Victor of Marseille, who had been excommunicated by Victor III in August of 1087. It is not known whether Rotger, the Cardinal Subdeacon S. R. E., was present or whether he participated, or in what capacity. He is mentioned by Hugh of Lyons in a letter to Countess Mathilda of Tuscany: De caetero, dilectum fratrem nostrum domnum Rotgerum, sanctae ecclesiae apostolicae sedis cardinalem subdiaconum, qui in proximo Romam per vos ad utilitatem sanctae ecclesiae venturum se dicit, nobilitati vestrae sicut necessarium commendamus. [See Catalano I, pp. 290-291]
Certainly not participating were seven excommunicated cardinals who had joined Clement III (Guibert of Ravenna) in his schism: Leo the Cardinal Archpriest (created in 1049, joined Clement III in 1180, died under Urban II); Beno (created in 1057, joined Clement in 1084, died 1098/1099); Ugobaldus (created in 1058 and died during Urban II's reign); Giovanni; Petrus the Chancellor (excommunicated in 1185); Hatto Bishop of Palestrina (created in 1063, joined Clement III in 1084); Innocentius (created in 1075 and excommunicated in 1084); Leo; the Cardinal Deacon Crescentius (created 1075) [list in "Cardinal Beno", Gesta Romanae Aecclesiae contra Hildebrandum, in MGH SS Libelli 2, 369]. One may add to this list Cardinal Hugo Candidus, Cardinal Priest in the titulus of S. Clemente (created 1049, joined "Honorius II" in 1061 but went over to Alexander II in 1068, participated in the Diet of Worms in January, 1074 [Watterich I, p. 372], signed the deposition of Gregory VII in 1080 [Watterich I, p. 442], and participated in the election of "Clement III"; died 1098).
Joannes, the Bishop of Tusculum, took the lead. On March 9, he spoke to all those assembled for the Election in the Cathedral of St. Peter in Terracina (Watterich, 575-576; Petrus Diaconus Cassinensis in Migne, Patrologiae 173, columns 824-826):
Altera igitur die convenerunt omnes .... et cum resedissent, surgens in medium Tusculanensis episcopus retulit per ordinem omnia quae de ordinatione Ecclesiae vel Papa Gregorius antea vel postmodum Papa VIctor statuerant; simul etiam quam ob causam ipsimet universi tunc in eodem loco convenerant. Dein surgens episcopus Portuensis et Benedictus praefactus retulerunt et ipsi tam clericorum quam laicorum fidelium a Roma super hoc negotio legationem pariter atque consensum....Cumque huius monasterii abbas et archiepiscopus Capuanus et ad postremum cuncti, qui convenerant, bene factum recte dictum laudassent.
He first rehearsed all that had taken place in the Election of Gregory VII and then the Election of Victor III, and stated the reason why they had all gathered together that day in that place. Then, on the morning of Sunday, March 12, the three Cardinal Bishops (Porto, Tusculum, Albano) announced that they wished the fourth Cardinal Bishop, Odo of Ostia, to be elected:
Dominica itaque die [March 12], valde mane, omnes iterum in eadem ecclesia congregati, cum inter se pariter nonnulla de re huiuscemodi tractavissent, exurgentes tres cardinales episcopi, qui caput eiusdem concilii erant, Portuensis scilicet, Tusculanensis et Albanensis ambonem ascenderunt factoque silentio uno simul ore pronuntiant, Ottonem episcopum placere sibi in Romanum Pontificem eligendum. Cumque utrum omnibus idem quoque placeret, sicut est consuetudo, requirerent, repente mirabili ac summa concordia omnes magna voce, hoc sibi placere dignumque illum universi conclamant apostolicae sedis Papam existere. Tunc Albanensi episcopo pronuntiante, Urbanum illum placere vocari, mox cuncti surgentes capiunt eumque cappam laneam exuentes, purpuream induunt, et cum acclamatione atque invocatione sancti Spiritus ad altare Beati Petri Apostoli illum pertrahentes in pontificali solio ponunt, quarto Idus Martii: sicque ab eodem Pontifice missa sollemniter celebrata, universi gaudentes Deoque gratias referentes redierunt ad sua.
All cried out in agreement in a loud voice that it was pleasing to them and that he was worthy to be Pope. The Cardinal Bishop of Albano announced that he wished to be called Urban. They then clothed him with the papal mantle and placed him on the episcopal throne. Since Urban II was already a bishop, he did not need to be consecrated. He was enthroned on the day of his election. But it was not until November that he was able to return to Rome [Gregorovius, p. 271].
At the beginning of 1074 Gregory VII sent off an embassy to Germany to try to end the Saxon revolt against Henry IV. He assumed the position of a mediator between two contending parties, rather than a supporter of the legitimate King. The ambassadors, who met the king at Nurnburg at Easter, 1074, were the Bishop of Ostia [Odo of Castillon]. the Bishop of Praeneste [Humbertus], the Bishop of Chur in Switzerland [Heinrich, Count of Montfort], and the Bishop of Como [Reginaldus] {Lambert of Hersfeld: Baronius-Theiner 17, p. 359; MGH SS 5, p. 215].
At the Roman Synod of 1081 [Migne, Patrologiae 148, 822], the following were present:
In a Bull of Urban II of April 1, 1092 [Tosti, Storia della Badia di Monte Cassino II, p. 85] the following list of signatories occurs:
Paul von Bernried, Canon of Regensburg, "S. Gregorii VII Vita," J.P. Migne (ed.), Patrologiae Cursus Completus Series Latina Tomus CXLVIII: Sancti Gregorii VII Epistolae et Diplomata Pontificia (Paris 1878), 39-104. [a 'mediocre author": Gregorovius IV. 1, p. 311 n.2.] = Watterich I, pp. 474-546.
Pandulphus Pisanus, "Vita Gregorii Papae VII,", columns 304-351; "Vita Urbani Papae II," columns 352-353; Bernardus Guidonis, "Vita Urbani Papae II," columns 353-355; in: Antonio Muratori (editor), Rerum Italicarum Scriptores Tomus III, pars 1.
Bertold Constantiniensis, "Acta Pontifica, ex Chronico Bertoldi Constantiniensis," J. P. Migne (editor), Patrologiae Latinae Cursus Completus 148, 103-114.
I. M. Watterich, Pontificum Romanorum qui fuerunt inde ab exeunte saeculo IX usque ad finem saeculi XIII vitae ab aequalibus conscriptae Tomus I (Lipsiae 1862), 570-576.
Erich Caspar, Petrus Diaconus und die Monte Cassinenser Fälschungen (Berlin 1909). H. Zatschek, "Zu Petrus Diaconus. Beiträge zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Registers, der Fortsetzung der Chronik, und der Besitzbestätigung Lothars III. fur Monte Cassino," Neues Archiv 47 (1928) 174-224. H.W. Klewitz, "Petrus Diaconus und die Montecassineser Klosterchronik des Leo von Ostia," Archiv für Urkundenforschung 14 (1936) 414-453. H.E.J.Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius. Montecassino, the Papacy, and the Normans in the Eleventh and Early Twelfth Centuries (Oxford 1983). M. Dell' Omo, "Leo Marsicano (Leone Ostiense), Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani 64 (Roma 2005), 552-557.
An extensive collection of relevant material on Urban II: Jean Mabillon and T. Ruinart, Ouvrages posthumes de D. Jean Mabillon et de D. Thierri Ruinart Tome III (Paris 1724), "contenant la Vie d' Urbain II. les Preuves et le Voiage d' Alsace et de Lorraine, par D. T. Ruinart.".
Cardella, Lorenzo, Memorie storiche de' cardinali della Santa Romana Ecclesia tomo primo parte prima (Roma: Pagliarini 1792). Rudolf Hüls, Kardinale, Klerus und Kirchen Roms: 1049-1130 (Niemeyer 1977) [Bibliothek des deutschen historischen Instituts in Rome, 48].
Gerold Mener von Knonan, Jahrbücher des Deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V.: Vierter Band, 1085 bis 1096 (Leipzig 1903). Ernst Bernheim (editor), Quellen zur Geschichte des Investiturstreites Heft I: Zur Geschichte Gregors VII und Heinrichs IV (Leipzig 1907); Heft 2: Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordates (Leipzig 1907)
Lucien Paulot, Un pape français, Urbain II (Paris 1903). Eduard Franz, Papst Paschalis II (Breslau 1877). F. Gregorovius, History of Rome in the Middle Ages, Volume IV. 1 second edition, revised (London: George Bell, 1896) [Book VII, chapters 6-7], pp. 261-270. Alfons Becker, Papst Urban II (1088-1099) (A. Hiersemann 1988) [Schriften der Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 19]. Ferdinand Hirsch, "Desiderius von Montecassino als Papst Victor III, Forschungen zur Deutschen Geschichte 7 (München 1867), 3-103 (esp. pp. 88 ff.). A. Fliche, "Le Pontificat de Victor III," Revue d' histoire ecclésiastique 20 (1924) 387-412. A. Becker, Papst Urban II (1088-1099) 2 volumes (Stuttgart 1964, 1988). E. Pásztor, "Per la storia del cardinalato nel secolo XI: gli elettori di Urbano II, " Società, istitutizioni, spiritualità. Studi in onore di Cinzio Violante II (Spoleto 1995) 581-598. Cristina Colotto, "Vittore III" Enciclopedia dei Papi (Roma 2000). Simonetta Cerrini, "Urbano II," Enciclopedia dei Papi (Roma 2000)
Richard Zöpffel Die Papstwahlen und die mit ihnen im nächsten Zusammenhange stehenden Ceremonien (Göttingen 1871). Karl Holder, Die Designation der Nachfolger durch die Päpste (Freiburg: Weith 1892), 51-56.
John Paul Adams, CSUN
john.p.adams@csun.edu